Welcome to visit Communications in Theoretical Physics,
Gravitation Theory, Astrophysics and Cosmology

Classification of static spherically symmetric perfect fluid space-times via conformal vector fields in f(T) gravity

  • Fiaz Hussain , 1 ,
  • Murtaza Ali 1 ,
  • Muhammad Ramzan 1 ,
  • Sabiha Qazi 2
Expand
  • 1Department of Mathematics, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan
  • 2Faculty of Engineering Sciences, GIK Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi, Swabi, KPK, Pakistan

Received date: 2022-05-05

  Revised date: 2022-08-23

  Accepted date: 2022-09-01

  Online published: 2022-11-21

Copyright

© 2022 Institute of Theoretical Physics CAS, Chinese Physical Society and IOP Publishing

Abstract

In this paper, we classify static spherically symmetric (SS) perfect fluid space-times via conformal vector fields (CVFs) in f(T) gravity. For this analysis, we first explore static SS solutions by solving the Einstein field equations in f(T) gravity. Secondly, we implement a direct integration technique to classify the resulting solutions. During the classification, there arose 20 cases. Studying each case thoroughly, we came to know that in three cases the space-times under consideration admit proper CVFs in f(T) gravity. In one case, the space-time admits proper homothetic vector fields, whereas in the remaining 16 cases either the space-times become conformally flat or they admit Killing vector fields.

Cite this article

Fiaz Hussain , Murtaza Ali , Muhammad Ramzan , Sabiha Qazi . Classification of static spherically symmetric perfect fluid space-times via conformal vector fields in f(T) gravity[J]. Communications in Theoretical Physics, 2022 , 74(12) : 125403 . DOI: 10.1088/1572-9494/ac8e51

1. Introduction

The mathematical form representing the governing equations of general relativity (GR) is the set of Einstein field equations (EFEs) that provide an assembly between geometry and physics. It has been observed that significant nonlinearity exists in these equations, which presents hurdles to identifying their exact solutions. The problem of solving these equations is expected to be resolved if one chooses a suitable space-time geometry and then seeks their solutions. The geometry admitting spherical symmetry provides one of the best frameworks to explore the solutions that in turn help to describe challenges encountered in modern theoretical physics. For instance, the theory of black holes has been greatly supplemented by the spherically symmetric (SS) space-times admitted by the Schwarzschild metric. Other renowned models depicting spherical symmetry include Bertotti–Robinson metrics [1], Kiselev's black hole space-time and the Reissner–Nordström and Schwarzschild–(anti-)de Sitter solutions [2]. Due to having the capability of describing a wider class of physical phenomena, SS space-times have been implemented in studying various astrophysical phenomena including the study of compact stars [35], neutron stars [6] and gravastars [7, 8]. The SS space-times could also be considered as key ingredients that yield a deeper approach to describing stellar models and the mysteries associated with redshifts [9]. The above particular classes of the SS solutions belong to some of the early solutions of GR that help confirm its validity. Surely, GR is an effective theory of gravitation as it has been verified in several astrophysical trials [1012]. Some of the important predictions that have been confirmed by GR include the perihelion precession of Mercury, gravitational redshift, and deflection of light by the Sun [13, 14]. As well as these phenomena there also exist tests involving gravitational waves [1518] and black hole shadows [1921] that have been performed to test GR.
On the other hand, it is a hot topic of recent debate that GR is not an ultimate theory of gravitation as it appears that it lacks a way to address certain problems of theoretical physics. The most prominent topic of debate is the unexpected expanding behavior of our universe [2224] which raises a question about the predictions claimed by GR. The surprisingly inadequate proportion of the mysterious dark matter and dark energy have added further problems which need to be understood [25, 26]. Thus, at the cosmological and large-scale level, GR also seems to fail in explaining various gravitational singularities. Such inconsistencies have led the scientific community to develop some reasonable tools. In this regard, a number of approaches have been proposed for achieving the desired cosmological results. The modified theories (MTs) of gravitation have appeared in order to address such problems of present day cosmology. Some of the astonishing facts supported by the MTs involve the predictions of non-singular cosmologies [2729], the paradigm of galaxies' rotation curves, the hierarchy problem in high energy physics and the merging of Grand Unified Theories [30]. Plenty of additional capabilities of the MTs of gravitation and their cosmological applications have been well documented in [31].
The first candidate that belongs in the category of MTs of gravitation is termed f(R) gravity, where f(R) is a function of the Ricci scalar R [32]. In the background of SS space-times, f(R) gravity has produced excellent results related to the existence of solutions of the EFEs [3340]. As a generalization of f(R) gravity, Harko et al introduced f(R, T) gravity by adding the trace of the energy–momentum tensor (EMT) in the existing function of the f(R) gravity [41]. Some of the other well-known classes of the MTs of gravitation and their characteristics are listed in [4249]. Some of these theories show their hands based on curvature invariants while others are based on torsion. The teleparallel equivalent (TE) of GR is the most basic torsion tensor theory that is designed based on certain tetrad fields [50]. A generalization of the TE of GR is named f(T) gravity, where f(T) is a function of the torsion scalar [51]. f(T) gravity is extremely important for several reasons. It can designate models of inflation [52, 53]. Implementation of such viable f(T) gravity models further helps to deepen understanding of the phenomenon of transition redshift [54, 55]. In cosmography, f(T) gravity shows important assets in the large-scale dynamics of the Universe [56]. In light of such useful characteristics admitted by f(T) gravity, various reviews have been made in the literature regarding the existence of SS black hole solutions [57, 58] as well as regular black hole solutions [59]. In the background of SS space-times, work on solutions of the EFEs in f(T) gravity has been done in [6068]. In [69], the authors have employed a well-known class of symmetry restriction known as Noether symmetry to explore spherically as well as cylindrically symmetric solutions in f(T) gravity. Symmetries are one of the powerful tools available for solving dynamical problems via Lie differentiation. The space-time symmetries also help to reduce partial differential equations to ordinary differential equations that in turn become easy to handle. A very basic symmetry that is defined by the vanishing of the Lie derivative of the metric tensor is Killing symmetry which carries Killing vector fields (KVFs). This sort of symmetry helps to select different conservation laws of physics [70]. The next symmetry restriction is called homothetic symmetry associated with homothetic vector fields (HVFs). This sort of symmetry forces the space-time to remain preserved up to a constant scale factor. A generalization of both the KVFs and HVFs are the conformal vector fields (CVFs). A CVF says Y is affiliated with the conformal symmetry (CS) and is defined as [71]
$\begin{eqnarray}{L}_{Y}{g}_{{ab}}={g}_{{ab},c}{Y}^{c}+{g}_{{ac}}{Y}_{,b}^{c}+{g}_{{bc}}{Y}_{,a}^{c}=2\xi {g}_{{ab}},\end{eqnarray}$
where L, gab, ξ = ξ(t, r, θ, φ) and comma represent the Lie derivative, metric tensor, conformal factor and partial derivative respectively. In equation (1), if $\xi =\mathrm{constant},$ then Y represents an HVF (proper homothetic if ξ ≠ 0). If ξ = 0, then Y characterizes a KVF, otherwise Y represents a proper CVF.
The CS has been widely implemented to investigate the exact solutions of the EFEs employing certain restrictions on the gravitational field. Geometrically, CS preserves a null cone as it maps null geodesic curves. The CS also gives a deep insight into the space-time geometry that further helps to describe the associated kinematics as well as dynamics. With these properties, special attention has been given to the study of the CVFs in MTs of gravitation in the last few years [7288]. Continuing this stream of work, we are conducting a study to classify the static SS perfect fluid space-times via CVFs in the f(T) theory of gravity.

2. Static SS solutions of the EFEs and their CVFs in f(T) gravity

The SS space-times have great importance in the study of black hole thermodynamics and compact stars, as well as in the investigation of gravitational collapse. The space-times admitting spherical symmetry have generated several physically acceptable results of GR, such as the Schwarzschild, Bertotti–Robinson and Einstein metrics [1]. In this paper, we consider a static SS space-time in the usual coordinates $\left(t,r,\theta ,\varphi \right)$ labeled $\left({y}^{0},{y}^{1},{y}^{2},{y}^{3}\right)$ respectively with the line element [89]
$\begin{eqnarray}{{\rm{d}}s}^{2}=-{{\rm{e}}}^{a\left(r\right)}{{\rm{d}}t}^{2}+{{\rm{e}}}^{b\left(r\right)}{{\rm{d}}r}^{2}+{Q}^{2}\left(r\right)\left[{\rm{d}}{\theta }^{2}+{\sin }^{2}\theta {\rm{d}}{\varphi }^{2}\right],\end{eqnarray}$
where $a=a\left(r\right)$, $b=b\left(r\right)$ and $Q=Q\left(r\right)$ are unknown functions of the radial coordinate r. The minimum numbers of KVFs admitted by the above space-times (2) are [71]
$\begin{eqnarray}\begin{array}{rcl}{Y}_{1} & = & {{\rm{\partial }}}_{t},{Y}_{2}=\sin \varphi \,{{\rm{\partial }}}_{\theta }+\cos \varphi \,\cot \theta \,{{\rm{\partial }}}_{\varphi },{Y}_{3}=\cos \varphi \,{{\rm{\partial }}}_{\theta }\\ & & -\sin \varphi \,\cot \theta \,{{\rm{\partial }}}_{\varphi }\,{\rm{and}}\,{{\rm{Y}}}_{4}={{\rm{\partial }}}_{\varphi }.\end{array}\end{eqnarray}$
The torsion scalar T assuming a diagonal tetrad for the above space-times (2) reads as [90]
$\begin{eqnarray}T=\displaystyle \frac{2{{\rm{e}}}^{-b}Q^{\prime} }{Q}\left(a^{\prime} +\displaystyle \frac{Q^{\prime} }{Q}\right),\end{eqnarray}$
where the prime after Q and a represents $\tfrac{{\rm{d}}}{{\rm{d}}r}.$ As mentioned earlier in this paper, we want to explore CVFs of the static SS space-times in f(T) gravity, and therefore we start with the EFEs of f(T) gravity which are [51]
$\begin{eqnarray}\begin{array}{c}{S}_{\mu }^{\nu \beta }{{\rm{\partial }}}_{\nu }{{TF}}_{T}+\left[{{\rm{e}}}^{-1}{{\rm{\partial }}}_{\nu }\left({{eS}}_{\mu }{}^{\nu \beta }\right)-{e}_{\mu }^{\lambda }{T}^{\alpha }{}_{\nu \lambda }{S}_{\alpha }^{\nu \beta }\right]F\\ \,+\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}{e}_{\mu }^{\beta }f={{ke}}_{\mu }^{i}{T}_{i}^{\beta },\end{array}\end{eqnarray}$
where ${S}_{\mu }^{\nu \beta }$ shows the spin tensor, f = f(T), $F(T)=\tfrac{{\rm{d}}f(T)}{{\rm{d}}T},$ e represents the determinant of tetrad field ${e}_{\mu }^{\lambda }$, ${T}_{\nu \lambda }^{\alpha }$ is specified for the torsion tensor, k = 4πG, where G is the gravitational constant and ${T}_{i}^{\beta }$ is the EMT. Considering the matter content given by the EMT as a perfect fluid [90], the following system of equations has been produced utilizing a diagonal tetrad that is constructed by putting equation (2) into equation (5)
$\begin{eqnarray}\begin{array}{l}\displaystyle \frac{f}{4}-\left[\displaystyle \frac{{{\rm{e}}}^{-b}}{Q}\left(a^{\prime} Q^{\prime} -b^{\prime} Q^{\prime} +\displaystyle \frac{2Q{{\prime} }^{2}}{Q}+2Q^{\prime\prime} \right)-\displaystyle \frac{1}{{Q}^{2}}\right]\\ \quad \times \displaystyle \frac{F}{2}-{{\rm{e}}}^{-b}\displaystyle \frac{Q^{\prime} T^{\prime} }{Q}{f}_{{TT}}=4\pi \rho ,\end{array}\end{eqnarray}$
$\begin{eqnarray}\left[\displaystyle \frac{{{\rm{e}}}^{-b}}{Q}\left(2a^{\prime} Q^{\prime} +\displaystyle \frac{2Q{{\prime} }^{2}}{Q}\right)-\displaystyle \frac{1}{{Q}^{2}}\right]\displaystyle \frac{F}{2}-\displaystyle \frac{f}{4}=4\pi p,\end{eqnarray}$
$\begin{eqnarray}\begin{array}{l}{{\rm{e}}}^{-b}\left[\displaystyle \frac{3a^{\prime} Q^{\prime} }{2Q}+\displaystyle \frac{a^{\prime\prime} }{2}+\displaystyle \frac{a{{\prime} }^{2}}{4}-\displaystyle \frac{a^{\prime} b^{\prime} }{4}-\displaystyle \frac{b^{\prime} Q^{\prime} }{2Q}+\displaystyle \frac{Q{{\prime} }^{2}}{{Q}^{2}}+\displaystyle \frac{Q^{\prime\prime} }{Q}\right]\\ \quad \times \displaystyle \frac{F}{2}-\displaystyle \frac{f}{4}+\displaystyle \frac{T^{\prime} {{\rm{e}}}^{-b}}{2}\left(\displaystyle \frac{a^{\prime} }{2}+\displaystyle \frac{Q^{\prime} }{Q}\right){f}_{{TT}}=4\pi p,\end{array}\end{eqnarray}$
where ρ and p represent the energy density (ED) and pressure of the fluid distribution respectively. The thing which is important to point out here is that in contrast with GR, the equations of motion in f(T) gravity for a diagonal tetrad field associated with the static SS space-times (2) admit an additional equation that comes from the $\left(r,\theta \right)$ component [90]
$\begin{eqnarray}{{\rm{e}}}^{\tfrac{-3b}{2}}\cot \theta {f}_{{TT}}T^{\prime} =0,\end{eqnarray}$
where $T^{\prime} =\left[\tfrac{-a^{\prime} Q^{\prime\prime} }{Q}+\left(a^{\prime} +b^{\prime} \right)\tfrac{Q{{\prime} }^{2}}{{Q}^{2}}+\tfrac{2Q{{\prime} }^{3}}{{Q}^{3}}+\tfrac{Q^{\prime} }{Q}\left(a^{\prime} b^{\prime} -a^{\prime\prime} -\tfrac{2Q^{\prime\prime} }{Q}\right)\right].$ Now, our goal is to solve equations (6)–(9) that involve unknowns a, b, Q, f, ρ and p. From equation (9), it is clear that either fTT is equal to zero or $T^{\prime} =0.$ The former possibility will lead toward linear f(T) gravity whereas the latter points toward the solutions of the above equations of motion admitting constant torsion scalar. We will consider both possibilities one by one. When fTT = 0, we have f(T) = d1T + d2, where ${d}_{1},{d}_{2}\in {\mathfrak{R}}.$ This form of f(T) is quite important from several points of view. Firstly, it helps to reduce the complexity involved in the EFEs (6)–(8). Secondly, it covers the results of the TE of GR. Another beauty of linear f(T) gravity is that it forces the EFEs to become invariant under local Lorentz transformation [91]. Additionally, in the case where d1 vanishes, f(T) gravity has the character of an important Cold Dark Matter model or Big Bang cosmological model [92]. No doubt, linear f(T) gravity simplifies the EFEs to a great extent, yet one can see that the system of equations (6)–(8) is still not easy to solve due to the nonlinearity occurring in the space-time components. In such a situation, one must design a framework that provides an easy route to solve equations (6)–(8). Here, we try to seek solutions by making a classification procedure. The scheme that we are adopting to get the solutions retains its importance as it covers many existing forms of static SS solutions. To proceed further, first, we use the fact fTT = 0 which implies f(T) = d1T + d2 in equations (6)–(8). After substituting the value of f(T), we subtract equations (7) and (8) from equation (6), which results in a pair of equations whose further subtraction yields
$\begin{eqnarray}\begin{array}{l}{{\rm{e}}}^{-b}\left[\displaystyle \frac{a^{\prime\prime} }{2}+\displaystyle \frac{a{{\prime} }^{2}}{4}-\displaystyle \frac{a^{\prime} Q^{\prime} }{2Q}-\displaystyle \frac{a^{\prime} b^{\prime} }{4}-\displaystyle \frac{b^{\prime} Q^{\prime} }{2Q}-\displaystyle \frac{Q{{\prime} }^{2}}{{Q}^{2}}+\displaystyle \frac{Q^{\prime\prime} }{Q}\right]\\ \quad +\,\displaystyle \frac{1}{{Q}^{2}}=0.\end{array}\end{eqnarray}$
To solve equation (10), we are imposing certain constraints on the space-time components as discussed earlier. By implementing this procedure, we find that there exist ten cases that depict the solutions of equation (10). For the sake of clarity, we also focus on determining the constraints admitted by the space-time components along with their respective solution. It is important to indicate here that we have also deduced the torsion scalar by utilizing the resulting solutions in equation (4). A summary of solutions of equation (10) is given below:

(i)$a=\mathrm{constant},$ $b=b\left(r\right)$, ${{\rm{e}}}^{-b}b^{\prime} r+2{{\rm{e}}}^{-b}-2=0$ implies $b=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{1}{1+{k}_{1}{r}^{2}}\right),$ Q = r and $T=\left(\tfrac{2}{{r}^{2}}+2{k}_{1}\right),$ where ${k}_{1}\,\in {\mathfrak{R}}\setminus \{0\}.$

(ii)$a=a\left(r\right)$, $b=\mathrm{constant},$ $2{ra}^{\prime\prime} +{ra}{{\prime} }^{2}-2a^{\prime} =0$ ⇒ $a\,=\mathrm{ln}{r}^{4},$ eb = 1, Q = r and T = 10r−2.

(iii)$a=a\left(r\right)$, $b=b\left(r\right)$, a = b−1, ${r}^{2}\left(b^{\prime\prime} -b{{\prime} }^{2}\right)+2\left(1,-,{{\rm{e}}}^{b}\right)\,=0$ implies $b=\mathrm{ln}{\left(1-\tfrac{{k}_{1}}{r}+\tfrac{{k}_{2}{r}^{2}}{3}\right)}^{-1}$, $a=\mathrm{ln}\left(1-\tfrac{{k}_{1}}{r}+\tfrac{{k}_{2}{r}^{2}}{3}\right),$ Q = r and $T=\left(\tfrac{2}{{r}^{2}}+2{k}_{2}\right),$ where ${k}_{1},{k}_{2}\in {\mathfrak{R}}\setminus \{0\}.$

(iv)$a=a\left(r\right)$, $b=b\left(r\right)$, a = b−1, ${{\rm{e}}}^{a}\left(\tfrac{a^{\prime\prime} }{2}+\tfrac{a{{\prime} }^{2}}{2}-\tfrac{1}{{r}^{2}}\right)+\tfrac{1}{{r}^{2}}\,=0$ ⇒ $a=\mathrm{ln}\left(1-\tfrac{2M}{r}\right)$, $b=\mathrm{ln}{\left(1-\tfrac{2M}{r}\right)}^{-1},$ Q = r and $T=\tfrac{2}{{r}^{2}},$ where M represents the Arnowitt–Deser–Misner mass.

(v)$a=a\left(r\right)$, $b=b\left(r\right)$, a = b−1, ${r}^{2}\left(a^{\prime\prime} +a{{\prime} }^{2}\right)\,-2\left(1-{{\rm{e}}}^{-a}\right)=0$ implies $a=\mathrm{ln}\left(1-\tfrac{{\rm{\Lambda }}{r}^{2}}{3}\right)$, $b\,=\mathrm{ln}{\left(1-\tfrac{{\rm{\Lambda }}{r}^{2}}{3}\right)}^{-1},$ Q = r and $T=\left(\tfrac{2}{{r}^{2}}-2{\rm{\Lambda }}\right),$ where Λ is the cosmological constant.

(vi)$a=a\left(r\right)$, $b=b\left(r\right)$, ${ra}^{\prime} +1=0$ which gives $a=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{{k}_{1}}{r}\right)$, $4{{\rm{e}}}^{b}-{rb}^{\prime} +1=0$ implies $b=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{r}{{k}_{2}-4r}\right),$ Q = r and T = 0, where ${k}_{1},{k}_{2}\in {\mathfrak{R}}\setminus \{0\}.$

(vii)$a=a\left(r\right)$, $b=b\left(r\right)$, ${ra}^{\prime} -2=0$ implies $a=\mathrm{ln}\left({k}_{1}{r}^{2}\right)$, ${{\rm{e}}}^{b}-{rb}^{\prime} -2=0$ ⇒ $b=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{2}{1+2{k}_{2}{r}^{2}}\right),$ Q = r and $T\,=\displaystyle \frac{3\left(1+2{k}_{2}{r}^{2}\right)}{{r}^{2}},$ where ${k}_{1},{k}_{2}\in {\mathfrak{R}}\setminus \{0\}.$

(viii)$a=a\left(r\right)$, $b=b\left(r\right)$, $\left(\tfrac{a^{\prime\prime} }{2}+\tfrac{a{{\prime} }^{2}}{4}\right)=0$ ⇒ $a\,=\mathrm{ln}{\left(\tfrac{{k}_{1}r+{k}_{2}}{2}\right)}^{2}$, $-{k}_{1}b^{\prime} {{\rm{e}}}^{-b}+2\left({k}_{1}r+{k}_{2}\right)=0$ which implies $b=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{{k}_{1}}{{k}_{1}{k}_{3}-{k}_{1}{r}^{2}-2{k}_{2}r}\right),$ Q = 1 and T = 0, where ${k}_{1},{k}_{2},{k}_{3}\in {\mathfrak{R}}\setminus \{0\}.$

(ix)$a=a\left(r\right)$, $b=b\left(r\right)$, a = b−1, $a^{\prime\prime} +a{{\prime} }^{2}+2{{\rm{e}}}^{-a}=0$ implies $a=\mathrm{ln}\left({k}_{2}-{k}_{1}r-{r}^{2}\right)$, $b=\mathrm{ln}{\left({k}_{2}-{k}_{1}r-{r}^{2}\right)}^{-1},$ Q = 1 and T = 0, where ${k}_{1},{k}_{2}\in {\mathfrak{R}}\setminus \{0\}.$

(x)$a=\mathrm{constant}\,=\,{k}_{1}\ne 0$, $b=\mathrm{constant}\,=\,{k}_{2}\ne 0$, $a=\mathrm{ln}\left({k}_{1}\right)$, $b=\mathrm{ln}\left({k}_{2}\right)$, ${QQ}^{\prime\prime} -Q{{\prime} }^{2}+{k}_{2}=0$ implies $Q=r\sqrt{{k}_{2}}$ and $T=\tfrac{2}{{k}_{2}{r}^{2}},$ where ${k}_{1},{k}_{2}\in {\mathfrak{R}}\setminus \{0\}$ with k1k2.

Now, we discuss the second possibility arising from equation (9), that is $T^{\prime} =0$, giving

$\begin{eqnarray}\begin{array}{l}\left[\displaystyle \frac{-a^{\prime} Q^{\prime\prime} }{Q}+\left(a^{\prime} +b^{\prime} \right)\displaystyle \frac{Q{{\prime} }^{2}}{{Q}^{2}}+\displaystyle \frac{2Q{{\prime} }^{3}}{{Q}^{3}}\right.\\ \quad \left.+\displaystyle \frac{Q^{\prime} }{Q}\left(a^{\prime} b^{\prime} -a^{\prime\prime} -\displaystyle \frac{2Q^{\prime\prime} }{Q}\right)\right]=0.\end{array}\end{eqnarray}$
Equation (11) yields solutions having constant torsion scalar as it resulted from the condition $T^{\prime} =0.$ Again, adopting a similar classification procedure for equation (11) as we had performed while searching for the solutions of equation (10), we reach the following cases:

(xi)$a=a\left(r\right)$, $b=b\left(r\right)$, ${ra}^{\prime\prime} -a^{\prime} =0$ implies $a\,=\left(\tfrac{{k}_{1}{r}^{2}}{2}+{k}_{2}\right)$, ${rb}^{\prime} \left({ra}^{\prime} +1\right)+2=0$ ⇒ $b=\mathrm{ln}{\left(\tfrac{{k}_{3}\sqrt{{k}_{1}{r}^{2}+1}}{r}\right)}^{2},$ Q = r and $T=\tfrac{2}{{k}_{3}^{2}},$ where ${k}_{1},{k}_{2},{k}_{3}\in {\mathfrak{R}}\left({k}_{1},{k}_{3}\ne 0\right).$

(xii) $a=a\left(r\right)$, $b=b\left(r\right)$, $1+{rb}^{\prime} =0$ implies $b=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{{k}_{1}}{r}\right)$, ${r}^{2}a^{\prime\prime} -{rb}^{\prime} -2=0$ ⇒ $a=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{{k}_{3}{{\rm{e}}}^{{k}_{2}r}}{r}\right),$ Q = r and $T=\tfrac{2{k}_{2}}{{k}_{3}},$ where ${k}_{1},{k}_{2},{k}_{3}\in {\mathfrak{R}}\left({k}_{1},{k}_{3}\ne 0\right).$

(xiii)$a=a\left(r\right)$, $b=b\left(r\right)$, $2+{rb}^{\prime} =0$ implies $b=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{{k}_{1}}{{r}^{2}}\right)$, ${ra}^{\prime\prime} -a^{\prime} \left(1+{rb}^{\prime} \right)=0$ ⇒ $a=\mathrm{ln}\left({k}_{3}{r}^{{k}_{2}}\right),$ Q = r and $T=\tfrac{2\left({k}_{2}+1\right)}{{k}_{1}},$ where ${k}_{1},{k}_{2},{k}_{3}\in {\mathfrak{R}}\left({k}_{1},{k}_{2},{k}_{3}\ne 0\right).$

(xiv)$a=a\left(r\right)$, $b=b\left(r\right)$, $2+{ra}^{\prime} =0$ implies $a=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{{k}_{1}}{{r}^{2}}\right)$, ${ra}^{\prime\prime} -b^{\prime} \left(1+{ra}^{\prime} \right)=0$ ⇒ $b=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{{k}_{2}}{{r}^{2}}\right),$ Q = r and $T=\tfrac{-2}{{k}_{2}},$ where ${k}_{1},{k}_{2}\in {\mathfrak{R}}\left({k}_{1},{k}_{2}\ne 0\right).$

(xv)$a=a\left(r\right)$, $b=b\left(r\right)$, r2a″ − 2 = 0 implies $a=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{{{\rm{e}}}^{{k}_{1}r+{k}_{2}}}{{r}^{2}}\right)$, $a^{\prime} +b^{\prime} \left(1+{ra}^{\prime} \right)=0$ ⇒ $b=\mathrm{ln}\left[\tfrac{{k}_{3}\left({k}_{1}r-1\right)}{{r}^{2}}\right],$ Q = r and $T=\tfrac{2}{{k}_{3}},$ where ${k}_{1},{k}_{2},{k}_{3}\in {\mathfrak{R}}\left({k}_{1},{k}_{3}\ne 0\right).$

(xvi)$a=\mathrm{constant}$, $b=b\left(r\right)$, ${rb}^{\prime} +2=0$ ⇒ $b=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{{k}_{1}}{{r}^{2}}\right)$, ea =1, Q = r and $T=\tfrac{2}{{k}_{1}},$ where ${k}_{1}\in {\mathfrak{R}}\setminus \{0\}.$

(xvii)$a=a\left(r\right)$, $b\,=\,\mathrm{constant}\,=\,{k}_{1}\ne 0$, ${r}^{2}a^{\prime\prime} -{ra}^{\prime} -2=0$ ⇒$a=\left(\tfrac{{k}_{2}{r}^{2}}{2}-\mathrm{ln}r+{k}_{3}\right),$ Q = r and $T=\tfrac{2{k}_{2}}{{{\rm{e}}}^{{k}_{1}}},$ where ${k}_{1},{k}_{2},{k}_{3}\in {\mathfrak{R}}\left({k}_{1},{k}_{2}\ne 0\right).$

(xviii)$a=a\left(r\right)$, $b=b\left(r\right)$, a″ = 0 implies $a=\left({k}_{1}r+{k}_{2}\right)$, ${ra}^{\prime} \left(1+{rb}^{\prime} \right)+{rb}^{\prime} +2\,=\,0$ ⇒ $b=\mathrm{ln}\left[\tfrac{{k}_{3}\left({k}_{1}r+1\right)}{{r}^{2}}\right],$ Q = r and $T=\tfrac{2}{{k}_{3}},$ where ${k}_{1},{k}_{2},{k}_{3}\in {\mathfrak{R}}\left({k}_{1},{k}_{3}\ne 0\right).$

(xix)$a=\mathrm{constant}\,=\,{k}_{1}\ne 0$, $b=b\left(r\right)$, Q″ = 0 implies $Q\,=\left({k}_{2}r+{k}_{3}\right)$, $b^{\prime} Q+2Q^{\prime} =0$ ⇒ $b=\mathrm{ln}\left[\tfrac{{k}_{4}}{{\left({k}_{2}r+{k}_{3}\right)}^{2}}\right]$ and $T\,=\tfrac{2{k}_{2}^{2}}{{k}_{4}},$ where ${k}_{1},{k}_{2},{k}_{3},{k}_{4}\in {\mathfrak{R}}\left({k}_{1},{k}_{2},{k}_{4}\ne 0\right).$

(xx)$a=\mathrm{constant}\,=\,{k}_{1}\ne 0$, $b=\mathrm{constant}\,=\,{k}_{2}\ne 0$, $a\,=\mathrm{ln}({k}_{1})$, $b=\mathrm{ln}({k}_{2})$, ${QQ}^{\prime\prime} -Q{{\prime} }^{2}=0$ implies $Q={{\rm{e}}}^{{k}_{3}r+{k}_{4}}$ and $T=\tfrac{2{k}_{3}^{2}}{{{\rm{e}}}^{{k}_{2}}},$ where ${k}_{1},{k}_{2},{k}_{3},{k}_{4}\in {\mathfrak{R}}\left({k}_{3}\ne 0\right)$ with k1k2.

An important thing that is to be highlighted here is that because of the above classification, we have obtained various important classes of physical interest. It has been observed that most of the metric potentials under the preview of spherical symmetry admit logarithmic functions. The choice of the SS space-times (2) with exponential scale factors or metric potentials is quite important as the space-times with exponential functions as a scale factor help to get rid of such logarithmic functions and hence produce physically realistic models. One of these includes the Bertotti–Robinson solutions (see cases (viii) and (ix)). From the physical perspective, such classes represent the non-null homogeneous Einstein–Maxwell fields [89, 93, 94]. From the point of view of the existence of black holes, most of the classes, for example cases (i), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv), (xv), (xvi), (xviii) and (xix), admit singularities at certain values of the radial coordinate r, which implies that such solutions might be used to model some sorts of black hole.
Now, we utilize the above solutions (i)–(xx) to identify CVFs that meet the requirements of equation (1). It is important to acknowledge here that the CVFs for cases (i), (ii) and (iii) have previously been determined in [81]. So, we overlook these cases and find CVFs of the remaining cases (iv)–(xx). We summarize the results in table 1 given below ignoring the lengthy process of calculations.
Table 1. CVFs of obtained static SS metrics.
Case No. Metric components CVFs Conformal factor Description
(iv) $a=\mathrm{ln}\left(1-\tfrac{2M}{r}\right)$, $b=\mathrm{ln}{\left(1-\tfrac{2M}{r}\right)}^{-1}$ and Q = r. Y1, Y2, Y3 and Y4. ξ = 0. KVFs
(v) $a=\mathrm{ln}\left(1-\tfrac{{\rm{\Lambda }}{r}^{2}}{3}\right)$, $b=\mathrm{ln}{\left(1-\tfrac{{\rm{\Lambda }}{r}^{2}}{3}\right)}^{-1}$ and Q = r. Y1, Y2, Y3 and Y4. ξ = 0. KVFs
(vi) $a=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{{k}_{1}}{r}\right)$, $b=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{r}{{k}_{2}-4r}\right)$ and Q = r. Y1, Y2, Y3 and Y4. ξ = 0. KVFs
(vii) $a=\mathrm{ln}\left({k}_{1}{r}^{2}\right),$ $b=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{2}{1+2{k}_{2}{r}^{2}}\right)$ and Q = r. Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4, ${Y}_{5}^{* * }={rt}\sqrt{1+2{k}_{2}{r}^{2}}\tfrac{\partial }{\partial r}+\tfrac{2}{{k}_{1}}\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{\sqrt{2{k}_{2}}r}{1+\sqrt{1+2{k}_{2}{r}^{2}}}\right)\tfrac{\partial }{\partial t}$ and ${Y}_{6}^{* * }=r\sqrt{1+2{k}_{2}{r}^{2}}\tfrac{\partial }{\partial r}.$ $\xi =\sqrt{1+2{k}_{2}{r}^{2}}\left({c}_{1}t+{c}_{2}\right),$ where, ${c}_{1},{c}_{2}\in {\mathfrak{R}}\left({c}_{1}\ne 0\right).$ CVFs
(viii) $a=\mathrm{ln}{\left(\tfrac{{k}_{1}r+{k}_{2}}{2}\right)}^{2}$, $b=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{{k}_{1}}{{k}_{1}{k}_{3}-{k}_{1}{r}^{2}-2{k}_{2}r}\right)$ and Q=1. Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4, ${Y}_{5}=-\left[{{\rm{\Omega }}}_{1}\cos {\rm{\Psi }}\right]\tfrac{\partial }{\partial t}-\left[{{\rm{\Omega }}}_{2}\sin {\rm{\Psi }}\right]\tfrac{\partial }{\partial r}$ and ${Y}_{6}=\left[{{\rm{\Omega }}}_{1}\sin {\rm{\Psi }}\right]\tfrac{\partial }{\partial t}-\left[{{\rm{\Omega }}}_{2}\cos {\rm{\Psi }}\right]\tfrac{\partial }{\partial r}.$ ξ = 0. KVFs
(ix) $a=\mathrm{ln}\left({k}_{2}-{k}_{1}r-{r}^{2}\right),$ $b=\mathrm{ln}{\left({k}_{2}-{k}_{1}r-{r}^{2}\right)}^{-1}$ and Q=1. Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4, ${Y}_{5}=-\left[{{\rm{\Omega }}}_{3}\cos {{\rm{\Psi }}}_{1}\right]\tfrac{\partial }{\partial t}-\left[{{\rm{\Omega }}}_{4}\sin {{\rm{\Psi }}}_{1}\right]\tfrac{\partial }{\partial r}$ and ${Y}_{6}=\left[{{\rm{\Omega }}}_{3}\sin {{\rm{\Psi }}}_{1}\right]\tfrac{\partial }{\partial t}-\left[{{\rm{\Omega }}}_{4}\cos {{\rm{\Psi }}}_{1}\right]\tfrac{\partial }{\partial r}.$ ξ = 0. KVFs
(x) $a=\mathrm{ln}\left({k}_{1}\right)$, $b=\mathrm{ln}\left({k}_{2}\right)$ and $Q=r\sqrt{{k}_{2}}.$ Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4 and ${Y}_{5}^{* }=t\tfrac{\partial }{\partial t}+r\tfrac{\partial }{\partial r}.$ ξ = c1, where ${c}_{1}\in {\mathfrak{R}}.$ HVFs
(xi) $a=\left(\tfrac{{k}_{1}{r}^{2}}{2}+{k}_{2}\right)$, $b=\mathrm{ln}{\left(\tfrac{{k}_{3}\sqrt{{k}_{1}{r}^{2}+1}}{r}\right)}^{2}$ and Q = r. Y1, Y2, Y3 and Y4. ξ = 0. KVFs
(xii) $a=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{{k}_{3}{e}^{{k}_{2}r}}{r}\right)$, $b=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{{k}_{1}}{r}\right)$ and Q = r. Y1, Y2, Y3 and Y4. ξ = 0. KVFs
(xiii) $a=\mathrm{ln}\left({k}_{3}{r}^{{k}_{2}}\right)$, $b=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{{k}_{1}}{{r}^{2}}\right)$ and Q = r. Y1, Y2, Y3 and Y4. ξ = 0. KVFs
(xiv) $a=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{{k}_{1}}{{r}^{2}}\right)$, $b=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{{k}_{2}}{{r}^{2}}\right)$ and Q = r. Y1, Y2, Y3 and Y4. ξ = 0. KVFs
(xv) $a=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{{{\rm{e}}}^{{k}_{1}r+{k}_{2}}}{{r}^{2}}\right)$, $b=\mathrm{ln}\left[\tfrac{{k}_{3}\left({k}_{1}r-1\right)}{{r}^{2}}\right]$ and Q = r. Y1, Y2, Y3 and Y4. ξ = 0. KVFs
(xvi) $a=\mathrm{constant}$, $b=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{{k}_{1}}{{r}^{2}}\right)$ and Q = r. Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4, Y5**$={{\rm{e}}}^{\tfrac{t}{\sqrt{{k}_{1}}}}\left(\tfrac{r}{\sqrt{{k}_{1}}}\tfrac{\partial }{\partial t}+\tfrac{{r}^{2}}{{k}_{1}}\tfrac{\partial }{\partial r}\right)$ and Y6**$={{\rm{e}}}^{\tfrac{-t}{\sqrt{{k}_{1}}}}\left(\tfrac{-r}{\sqrt{{k}_{1}}}\tfrac{\partial }{\partial t}+\tfrac{{r}^{2}}{{k}_{1}}\tfrac{\partial }{\partial r}\right).$ $\xi =\tfrac{r\,\psi }{{k}_{1}},$ where $\psi =\left[\begin{array}{l}{c}_{1}{{\rm{e}}}^{\tfrac{t}{\sqrt{{k}_{1}}}}+\\ {c}_{2}{{\rm{e}}}^{\tfrac{-t}{\sqrt{{k}_{1}}}}\end{array}\right]$ with ${c}_{1},{c}_{2}\in {\mathfrak{R}}\setminus \{0\}.$ CVFs
(xvii) $a=\left(\tfrac{{k}_{2}{r}^{2}}{2}-\mathrm{ln}r+{k}_{3}\right)$, $b=\mathrm{constant}={k}_{1}\ne 0$ and Q = r. Y1, Y2, Y3 and Y4. ξ = 0. KVFs
(xviii) $a=\left({k}_{1}r+{k}_{2}\right)$, $b=\mathrm{ln}\left[\tfrac{{k}_{3}\left({k}_{1}r+1\right)}{{r}^{2}}\right]$ and Q = r. Y1, Y2, Y3 and Y4. ξ = 0. KVFs
(xix) $Q=\left({k}_{2}r+{k}_{3}\right)$, $b=\mathrm{ln}\left[\tfrac{{k}_{4}}{{\left({k}_{2}r+{k}_{3}\right)}^{2}}\right]$ and Q = r. Y1, Y2, Y3 and Y4. ξ = 0. KVFs
(xx) $a=\mathrm{ln}\left({k}_{1}\right)$, $b=\mathrm{ln}\left({k}_{2}\right)$ and $Q={{\rm{e}}}^{{k}_{3}r+{k}_{4}}.$ Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4, Y5**$={{\rm{e}}}^{{k}_{3}{{\rm{\Omega }}}_{5}}\left(\tfrac{1}{\sqrt{{k}_{1}{k}_{2}}}\tfrac{\partial }{\partial t}+\tfrac{1}{{k}_{2}}\tfrac{\partial }{\partial r}\right)$ and Y6**$={{\rm{e}}}^{{k}_{3}{{\rm{\Omega }}}_{6}}\left(\tfrac{-1}{\sqrt{{k}_{1}{k}_{2}}}\tfrac{\partial }{\partial t}+\tfrac{1}{{k}_{2}}\tfrac{\partial }{\partial r}\right).$ $\xi =\tfrac{{k}_{3}\,\psi }{{k}_{2}},$ where $\psi =\left[{c}_{1}{{\rm{e}}}^{{k}_{3}{{\rm{\Omega }}}_{5}}+{c}_{2}{{\rm{e}}}^{{k}_{3}{{\rm{\Omega }}}_{6}}\right]$ with ${c}_{1},{c}_{2}\in {\mathfrak{R}}\setminus \{0\}.$ CVFs
In table 1,
$\begin{eqnarray}\begin{array}{rcl}{{\rm{\Omega }}}_{1} & = & \left\{\displaystyle \frac{2\sqrt{{k}_{1}{r}^{2}+2{k}_{2}r-{k}_{1}{k}_{3}}}{\left({k}_{1}r+{k}_{2}\right)\sqrt{-{k}_{1}{}^{2}{k}_{3}-{k}_{2}{}^{2}}}\right\},\\ {{\rm{\Omega }}}_{2} & = & \left\{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{{k}_{1}{r}^{2}+2{k}_{2}r-{k}_{1}{k}_{3}}}{{k}_{1}}\right\},\\ {{\rm{\Omega }}}_{3} & = & \left\{\displaystyle \frac{2r+{k}_{2}}{\sqrt{-{k}_{2}{}^{2}-4{k}_{1}}\sqrt{{r}^{2}+{k}_{2}r-{k}_{1}}}\right\},\\ {{\rm{\Omega }}}_{4} & = & \sqrt{{r}^{2}+{k}_{2}r-{k}_{1}},{{\rm{\Omega }}}_{5}=\left(\displaystyle \frac{r\sqrt{{k}_{2}}+t\sqrt{{k}_{1}}}{\sqrt{{k}_{2}}}\right),\\ {{\rm{\Omega }}}_{6} & = & \left(\displaystyle \frac{r\sqrt{{k}_{2}}-t\sqrt{{k}_{1}}}{\sqrt{{k}_{2}}}\right),\end{array}\end{eqnarray}$
$\begin{eqnarray}\begin{array}{rcl}\mathrm{whereas}\,\,{\rm{\Psi }} & = & \left(\displaystyle \frac{t\sqrt{-{k}_{1}^{2}{k}_{3}-{k}_{2}^{2}}}{2}\right)\,\mathrm{and}\\ {{\rm{\Psi }}}_{1} & = & \left(\displaystyle \frac{t\sqrt{-{k}_{2}{}^{2}-4{k}_{1}}}{2}\right).\end{array}\end{eqnarray}$
It is necessary to mention here that in table 1, Y1, Y2, Y3 and Y4 are the isometries represented in equation (3) whereas Y5 and Y6 which appear in cases (viii)–(ix) are the additional isometries. Moreover, ${Y}_{5}^{* }$ is a proper HVF whereas ${Y}_{5}^{* * }$ and ${Y}_{6}^{* * }$ represent proper CVFs.

3. Summary and discussion

The f(T) theory of gravity has been proven to be an effective component of the MTs of gravitation. It depends upon the torsion scalar which plays a significant role as it has been observed that the torsion scalar is responsible for measuring the intensity of the gravitational field [95]. It has the potential to address late-time accelerated expansion as well as certain cosmological and astrophysical phenomena. These physical aspects are purely affiliated with the EFEs that vary by varying the f(T) gravity models. It is important to note that to achieve the desired cosmological results, one has to impose certain constraints appearing in the specific f(T) gravity model. Such constraints could be obtained by fixing the model parameters involved in the functional form of f(T) gravity because of observational data. Such practices have been used by the authors in [96], to constrain model parameters of two well-studied f(T) ansatzes, namely the power-law and the exponential, and they found less than one percent divergence from the TE of GR. The detail of such constraints under the preview of some important forms of f(T) gravity can be seen in [9799]. Now, the issue is to explore a suitable form of f(T) that further helps to deduce the solution for resulting EFEs. In this paper, we have employed a technique to explore the perfect fluid solutions of the EFEs in f(T) gravity by assuming static SS space-times. It is important to mention here that we have solved the governed system of equations (6)–(9) for two possibilities that arose from equation (9). Firstly, we have considered fTT = 0 and have found the solutions. In order to simplify the calculations, we have made some algebraic manipulations to get equation (10) that only involved the space-time components. Implementation of certain constraints on such components led us to select the exact forms of space-times. Secondly, we have considered the possibility $T^{\prime} =0$ and have found the solutions independently. It is necessary to clarify here that equation (10) is a part of the first possibility which is not concerned with the second possibility. In fact, we are treating the problem for each possibility separately.
As an application of our extracted solutions, we have further implemented the CS for studying the CVFs. The reason for the interest in exploring CVFs has been well described in [100] where a wider class of applications of the CVFs in cosmology and astrophysics has been discussed. A subclass of the CVFs that is the KVFs carries a conserved quantity that admits certain conservation laws of physics. The other symmetry restriction that comes within the shadow of conformal motion has been termed homothetic motion. This symmetry restriction forces the metric to remain invariant up to a constant scale factor. The results of this study have been divided into the following categories. In cases (i) and (ii), the space-times have turned out to be conformally flat, so attain maximum dimension i.e. 15 [81]. Similarly, the CVFs for case (iii) have also been discussed in [81] where the resulting space-time admits four KVFs. The results of the remaining cases after performing the above procedure are given below:
a

(a)The CVFs in cases (iv), (v), (vi), (viii), (ix), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv), (xv), (xvii), (xviii) and (xix) become the KVFs. Physically, the KVFs produce conservation laws i.e. conservation of energy and linear momentum are related with the translational KVFs ∂t and ∂φ respectively, whereas conservation of angular momentum has been depicted by the rotational isometries Y2 and Y3 respectively.

b

(b)In cases (vii), (xvi) and (xx), the space-times admit proper CVFs. The dimension of CVFs for these cases has turned out to be six, of which four are KVFs which are given in equation (3), whereas the remaining two are proper CVFs which are ${Y}_{5}^{* * }$ and ${Y}_{6}^{* * }.$ The CVFs have a wide scope of application in loop quantum cosmology and astrophysics giving models of compact stars, dense stars and gravastars [85].

c

(c)In case (x), the space-time admits proper HVFs due to the conformal factor ξ being a non-zero constant. The HVFs are quite important from several points of view. First, HVFs have been found useful in discussing the constant of motion that allows for examining particle trajectories in space-time [84]. Secondly, the homothetic motion helps to address the singularity issue in GR. It is to be noted that by studying self-similar solutions of the EFEs, the class of HVFs has also played a significant role.

It is valuable to indicate here that to complete the study, we have also evaluated the dynamical parameters like ED $\left(\rho \right)$ and pressure $\left(p\right)$ of the fluid distribution in each of the cases (i)–(xx) by utilizing values of space-time components along with the function f(T) in equations (6)–(8). Recall that in cases (i)–(x), f(T) is a linear function i.e. f(T) = d1T + d2, where ${d}_{1},{d}_{2}\in {\mathfrak{R}}$, whereas the solutions in cases (xi)–(xx) have been obtained assuming $T^{\prime} =0$ indicating that the torsion scalar is a constant. This condition further implies that f(T) would be a constant function. On utilizing this fact in equations (6)–(8), we have found that for each of the static SS models represented by cases (xi)–(xx), both the ED and pressure are non-zero constants and are related as p = −ρ. The values of the physical parameters for the rest of the cases (i)–(x) are tabulated below.
In table 2, the ED and pressure for cases (i), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (viii), (ix) and (x) are related as p = −ρ, which shows that the dominant universes behave as though they contain dark energy or the ED of a vacuum or cosmological constant. In cases (ii) and (vii), the ED and pressure are positive if the constants d1 and d2 turn out to be positive. Such types of cases would produce an attractive gravitational effect on our universe's expansion whereas negative pressure in dark energy has been interpreted as the effect of antigravity [101].
Table 2. ED and pressure.
Case No. Metric components ED Pressure
(i) $a=\mathrm{constant}$ $b=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{1}{1+{k}_{1}{r}^{2}}\right)$ and Q = r. $\rho =\tfrac{1}{16\pi }\left({d}_{2}-6{k}_{1}{d}_{1}\right).$ $p=-\tfrac{1}{16\pi }\left({d}_{2}-2{k}_{1}{d}_{1}\right).$
(ii) $a=\mathrm{ln}{r}^{4}$, eb = 1 and Q = r. $\rho =\tfrac{{d}_{2}}{16\pi }.$ $p=\tfrac{1}{16\pi }\left[\tfrac{8{d}_{1}}{{r}^{2}}-{d}_{2}\right].$
(iii) $a=\mathrm{ln}\left(1-\tfrac{{k}_{1}}{r}+\tfrac{{k}_{2}{r}^{2}}{3}\right),$ $b=\mathrm{ln}{\left(1-\tfrac{{k}_{1}}{r}+\tfrac{{k}_{2}{r}^{2}}{3}\right)}^{-1}$ and Q = r. $\rho =\tfrac{-1}{16\pi }\left[2{k}_{2}{d}_{1}-{d}_{2}\right].$ $p=\tfrac{1}{16\pi }\left[2{k}_{2}{d}_{1}-{d}_{2}\right].$
(iv) $a=\mathrm{ln}\left(1-\tfrac{2M}{r}\right),$ $b=\mathrm{ln}{\left(1-\tfrac{2M}{r}\right)}^{-1}$ and Q = r. $\rho =\tfrac{{d}_{2}}{16\pi }.$ $p=-\tfrac{{d}_{2}}{16\pi }.$
(v) $a=\mathrm{ln}\left(1-\tfrac{{\rm{\Lambda }}{r}^{2}}{3}\right),$ $b=\mathrm{ln}{\left(1-\tfrac{{\rm{\Lambda }}{r}^{2}}{3}\right)}^{-1}$ and Q = r. $\rho =\tfrac{1}{16\pi }\left(2{\rm{\Lambda }}{d}_{1}+{d}_{2}\right).$ $p=-\tfrac{1}{16\pi }\left(2{\rm{\Lambda }}{d}_{1}+{d}_{2}\right).$
(vi) $a=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{{k}_{1}}{r}\right),$ $b=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{r}{{k}_{2}-4r}\right)$ and Q = r. $\rho =\tfrac{{d}_{2}}{16\pi }.$ $p=-\tfrac{{d}_{2}}{16\pi }.$
(vii) $a=\mathrm{ln}\left({k}_{1}{r}^{2}\right),$ $b=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{2}{1+2{k}_{2}{r}^{2}}\right)$ and Q = r. $\rho =\tfrac{1}{16\pi }\left[\left(\tfrac{1-6{k}_{2}{r}^{2}}{{r}^{2}}\right){d}_{1}+{d}_{2}\right].$ $p=\tfrac{1}{16\pi }\left[\left(\tfrac{1+6{k}_{2}{r}^{2}}{{r}^{2}}\right){d}_{1}-{d}_{2}\right].$
(viii) $a=\mathrm{ln}{\left(\tfrac{{k}_{1}r+{k}_{2}}{2}\right)}^{2},$ $b=\mathrm{ln}\left(\tfrac{{k}_{1}}{{k}_{1}{k}_{3}-{k}_{1}{r}^{2}-2{k}_{2}r}\right)$ and Q=1. $\rho =\tfrac{{d}_{2}}{16\pi }.$ $p=-\tfrac{{d}_{2}}{16\pi }.$
(ix) $a=\mathrm{ln}\left({k}_{2}-{k}_{1}r-{r}^{2}\right)$, $b=\mathrm{ln}{\left({k}_{2}-{k}_{1}r-{r}^{2}\right)}^{-1}$ and Q=1. $\rho =\tfrac{{d}_{2}}{16\pi }.$ $p=-\tfrac{{d}_{2}}{16\pi }.$
(x) $a=\mathrm{ln}\left({k}_{1}\right)$, $b=\mathrm{ln}\left({k}_{2}\right)$ and $Q=r\sqrt{{k}_{2}}.$ $\rho =\tfrac{{d}_{2}}{16\pi }.$ $p=-\tfrac{{d}_{2}}{16\pi }.$
Moreover, it is clear from table 2 that both the ED and pressure have turned out to be constant except in case (vii). Physically, the SS solutions showing such behavior are important, particularly in astrophysics. It has been observed that several constant density solutions are able to model stellar objects and relativistic stars [102]. Exterior Schwarzschild–anti-de Sitter solutions and Einstein static metrics are well known examples of SS solutions that admit constant ED.
As already mentioned, we have obtained the values of ED $\left(\rho \right)$ and pressure $\left(p\right)$ by utilizing the metric components along with the observed f(T) in equations (6)–(8). The solutions deduced in this paper enjoy certain important physical properties that could be judged via energy conditions. It is well known that some sorts of energy conditions exist in the literature that help to select physically realistic solutions for the EFEs [103]. These conditions include the weak energy condition (WEC), strong energy condition (SEC), dominant energy condition (DEC) and null energy condition (NEC). The mathematical representation for a perfect fluid solution to admit the WEC is ρ ≥ 0, ρ + p ≥ 0 and for a solution to fulfill the SEC it is ρ + p ≥ 0, ρ + 3p ≥ 0. Similarly, solutions obeying ρ ≥ 0, $\rho \geqslant \left|p\right|$ indicate that they satisfy the DEC whereas those solutions which satisfy only condition ρ + p ≥ 0 are said to satisfy the NEC [104]. To check the physical soundness of the obtained solutions, we also classify them according to the energy condition that they may admit. Particularly, we have observed from table 2 that in case (i), the WEC is satisfied if d1 < 0 and $\tfrac{{d}_{2}}{{d}_{1}}\lt 6{k}_{1}.$ For case (ii), we found that the values of ED and pressure satisfy the WEC if d1, d2 > 0. Case (iii) satisfies the NEC for ${d}_{1}\lt \tfrac{1}{{r}^{3}}.$ Again, case (iv) satisfies the WEC on account of d2 > 0. Cases (v) and (vi) fulfill the WEC for d1, d2 > 0 and d2 > 0 respectively. Similarly, case (vii) fulfills the NEC if d1 > 0 whereas cases (viii), (ix) and (x) satisfy the WEC if d2 > 0.
It is worth mentioning here that the present study is conducted using static SS space-times admitting a diagonal tetrad with linear or constant f(T) gravity. The analysis may become more impressive if one deals with the non-diagonal tetrad and nonlinear f(T) gravity and then performs this type of classification to explore solutions and study the dynamics as well as the space-time symmetries of the resulting solutions.
1
Jamal S Shabbir G 2018 Potential functions admitted by well-known spherically symmetric static spacetimes Rep. Math. Phys. 81 201

DOI

2
Kiselev V V 2003 Quintessence and black holes Class. Quantum Grav. 20 1187

DOI

3
Errehymy A Daoud M 2020 Studies an analytic model of a spherically symmetric compact object in Einsteinian gravity Eur. Phys. J. C 80 258

DOI

4
Takisa P M Maharaj S D Manjonjo A M Moopanar S 2017 Spherical conformal models for compact stars Eur. Phys. J. C 77 713

DOI

5
Waheed S Mustafa G Zubair M Ashraf A 2020 Physically acceptable embedded class-I compact stars in modified gravity with Karmarkar condition Symmetry 12 962

DOI

6
Keir J 2016 Slowly decaying waves on spherically symmetric spacetimes and ultracompact neutron stars Class. Quantum Grav. 33 135009 4

DOI

7
Das A Ghosh S Deb D Rahaman F Ray S 2020 Study of gravastars under f(T) gravity Nucl. Phys. B 954 114986

DOI

8
Naz S Sharif M 2022 Gravastars with Kuchowicz metric in energy–momentum squared gravity Universe 8 142

DOI

9
Shojai A Shojai F 2012 Some static spherically symmetric interior solutions of f(R) gravity Gen. Relativ. Gravit. 44 211

DOI

10
Bondarenko S 2019 Negative mass scenario and Schwarzschild spacetime in general relativity Mod. Phys. Lett. A 34 1950084

DOI

11
Akiyama K 2019 Unitary black hole radiation: Schwarzschild-global monopole background Astrophys. J. Lett. 875 1

12
Das A Banerjee N 2019 Unitary black hole radiation: Schwarzschild-global monopole background Eur. Phys. J. C 79 704

DOI

13
Shapiro I I Smith W B Ash M E Herrick S 1971 General relativity and the orbit of Icarus Astron. J. 76 588

DOI

14
Shaprio I I Counselman C C King R W 1976 Verification of the principle of equivalence for massive bodies Phys. Rev. Lett. 36 555

DOI

15
Yunes N Siemens X 2013 Gravitational-wave tests of general relativity with ground-based detectors and pulsar-timing arrays Living Rev. Relativ. 16 90

DOI

16
Dreyer O Kelly B Krishnan B Finn L S Garrison D Aleman P L 2004 Black-hole spectroscopy: testing general relativity through gravitational-wave observations Class. Quantum Grav. 21 787

DOI

17
Gair J R Vallisneri M Larson S L Baker J G 2013 Strong gravity signatures in the polarization of gravitational waves Living Rev. Relativ. 16 1

18
Curson Z Yagi K 2021 Testing general relativity with gravitational waves Handbook of Gravitational Wave Astronomy Singapore Springer

19
Yagi K Stein L C 2016 Black hole based tests of general relativity Class. Quantum Grav. 33 054001

DOI

20
Johannsen T Broderick A E Plewa P M Chatzopoulos S Doeleman S S Eisenhauer F Fish V L Genzel R Gerhard O Johnson M D 2016 Testing general relativity with the shadow size of Sgr A* Phys. Rev. Lett. 116 031101

DOI

21
Psaltis D 2020 Gravitational test beyond the first post-Newtonian order with the shadow of the M87 black hole Phys. Rev. Lett. 125 141104

DOI

22
Abbott B P 1998 Gravitational quasi-normal modes of static anti-de Sitter black holes Phys. Rev. Lett. 116 1009

23
Riess A G 2018 New parallaxes of galactic Cepheids from spatially scanning the Hubble Space Telescope: Implications for the Hubble constant Astrophys. J. 855 136

DOI

24
Perlmutter S 1999 Measurements of Ω and Λ from 42 high-redshift supernovae Astrophys. J. 517 565

DOI

25
Peebles P J Ratra B 2003 The cosmological constant and dark energy Rev. Mod. Phys. 75 559

DOI

26
Padmanabhan T 2003 Cosmological constant—the weight of the vacuum Phys. Rep. 380 235

DOI

27
Nojiri S Odintsov S D 2003 Where new gravitational physics comes from: M-theory? Phys. Lett. B 576 5

DOI

28
Gunther U Zhuk A Bezerra V Romero C 2005 AdS and stabilized extra dimensions in multi-dimensional gravitational models with nonlinear scalar curvature terms R–1 and R4 Class. Quantum Grav. 22 3135

DOI

29
Nojiri S Odintsov S D Sasaki M 2005 Gauss–Bonnet dark energy Phys. Rev. D 71 123509

DOI

30
Nojiri S Odintsov S D 2007 Introduction to modified gravity and gravitational alternative for dark energy Int. J. Geom. Methods Mod. Phys. 4 115

DOI

31
Capozziello S De Laurentis M 2011 Extended theories of gravity Phys. Rep. 509 167

DOI

32
Buchdahl H A 1970 Non-linear Lagrangians and cosmological theory Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 150 1

DOI

33
Multanmaki T Vilja I 2006 Spherically symmetric solutions of modified field equations in theories of gravity Phys. Rev. D 74 064022

DOI

34
Multamaki T Vilja I 2007 Static spherically symmetric perfect fluid solutions in f(R) theories of gravity Phys. Rev. D 76 064021

DOI

35
Capozziello S Stabile A Troisi A 2007 Spherically symmetric solutions in f(R) gravity via the Noether symmetry approach Class. Quantum Grav. 24 2153

DOI

36
Capozziello S Stabile A Troisi A 2008 Spherical symmetry in f(R)-gravity Class. Quantum Grav. 25 085004

DOI

37
Sebastiani L Zerbini S 2011 Static spherically symmetric solutions in F(R) gravity Eur. Phys. J. C 71 1591

DOI

38
Kainulainen K Piilonen J Reijonen V Sunhede D 2007 Spherically symmetric spacetimes in f(R) gravity theories Phys. Rev. D 76 024020

DOI

39
Capozziello S Frusciant N Vernieri D 2012 New spherically symmetric solutions in f(R) gravity by Noether symmetries Gen. Relativ. Gravit. 44 1881

DOI

40
Amirabi Z Halilsoy M Mazharimousavi S H 2016 Generation of spherically symmetric metrics in f(R) gravity Eur. Phys. J. C 76 338

DOI

41
Harko T Lobo F S N Nojiri S Odintsov S D 2011 f(R,T) gravity Phys. Rev. D 84 024020

DOI

42
Chiba T Smith T L Erickcek A L 2007 Solar System constraints to general f(R) gravity Phys. Rev. D 75 124014

DOI

43
Nojiri S Odintsov S D 2005 Modified Gauss–Bonnet theory as gravitational alternative for dark energy Phys. Lett. B 631 1

DOI

44
Haghani Z Harko T Lobo F S N Sepangi H R Shahidi S 2013 Further matters in space-time geometry: f(R, T, RμνTμν) gravity Phys. Rev. D 88 044023

DOI

45
Odinstov S D Saez-Gomez D 2013 f(R, T, RμνTμν) gravity phenomenology and ΛCDM universe Phys. Lett. B 725 437

DOI

46
Ferraro R Fiorini F 2007 Modified teleparallel gravity: Inflation without an inflaton Phys. Rev. D 75 084031

DOI

47
Bahamonde S Böhmer C G 2016 Modified teleparallel theories of gravity: Gauss–Bonnet and trace extensions Eur. Phys. J. C 76 578

DOI

48
Bahamonde S Böhmer C G Wright M 2015 Modified teleparallel theories of gravity Phys. Rev. D 92 104042

DOI

49
Biswas T Mazumdar A Siegel W 2006 Bouncing universes in string-inspired gravity J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 3 9

DOI

50
Maluf J W 2013 The teleparallel equivalent of general relativity Ann. Phys. 525 339

DOI

51
Bengochea G R Ferraro R 2009 Dark torsion as the cosmic speed-up Phys. Rev. D 79 142019

DOI

52
Jamil M Momeni D Myrzakulov R 2015 Warm intermediate inflation in F(T) gravity Int. J. Theor. Phys. 54 1098

DOI

53
Ferraro R Fiorini F 2008 Born–Infeld gravity in Weitzenböck spacetime Phys. Rev. D 78 124019

DOI

54
Cai Y F Capozziello S De Laurentis M Saridakis E N 2016 f(T) teleparallel gravity and cosmology Rep. Prog. Phys. 79 106901

DOI

55
Capozziello S Luongo O Saridakis E N 2015 Transition redshift in f(T) cosmology and observational constraints Phys. Rev. D 91 124037

DOI

56
Capozziello S Cardone V F Farajollahi H Ravanpak A 2011 Cosmography in f(T) gravity Phys. Rev. D 84 043527

DOI

57
Wang T 2011 Static solutions with spherical symmetry in f(T) theories Phys. Rev. D 84 024042

DOI

58
Capozziello S Gonzalez P A Saridakis E N Vasquez Y 2013 Exact charged black-hole solutions in D-dimensional f(T) gravity: torsion vs curvature analysis J. High Energy Phys. JHEP02(2013)039

DOI

59
Junior E L Rodrigues M E Houndjo M J 2015 Regular black holes in f(T) gravity through a nonlinear electrodynamics source J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 10 060

DOI

60
Atazadeh K Mousavi M 2013 Vacuum spherically symmetric solutions in f(T) gravity Eur. Phys. J. C 73 2272

DOI

61
Daouda M H Rodrigues M E Houndjo M J S 2012 Static anisotropic solutions in f(T) theory Eur. Phys. J. C 72 1890

DOI

62
Nashed G G L 2012 (1+4)-dimensional spherically symmetric black holes in f(T) Chin. Phys. Lett. 29 050402

63
Nashed G G L 2013 A special exact spherically symmetric solution in f(T) gravity theories Gen. Relativ. Gravit. 45 1887

DOI

64
Nashed G G L 2013 Analytic charged spherically symmetric solution in f(T) gravity J. Phys. Soc. Japan 82 094006

DOI

65
Nashed G G L 2013 Spherically symmetric charged-dS solution in f(T) gravity theories Phys. Rev. D 88 104034

DOI

66
Daouda M H Rodrigues M E Houndjo M J S 2011 New static solutions in f(T) theory Eur. Phys. J. C 71 1817

DOI

67
Sharif M Rani S 2014 Dynamical instability of spherical collapse in f(T) gravity Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 440 2255

DOI

68
Ruggiero M L Radicella N 2015 Weak-field spherically symmetric solutions in f(T) gravity Phys. Rev. D 91 104014

DOI

69
Nurbaki A N Capozziello S Deliduman C 2020 Spherical and cylindrical solutions in f(T) gravity by Noether symmetry approach Eur. Phys. J. C 80 108

DOI

70
Petrov A Z 1969 Einstein Spaces Oxford Pergamon

71
Hall G S 2004 Symmetries and Curvature Structure in General Relativity Singapore World Scientific

72
Hussain F Shabbir G Mahomed F M Ramzan M 2020 Conformal vector fields of proper non-static plane symmetric space-times in f(R) gravity Int. J. Mod. Phys. 17 2050077

73
Shabbir G Hussain F Ramzan M Bokhari A H 2019 A note on classification of spatially homogeneous rotating space-times in f(R) theory of gravity according to their proper conformal vector fields Int. J. Geom. Methods Mod. Phys. 16 1950111

DOI

74
Hussain F Shabbir G Ramzan M Malik S 2019 Classification of vacuum classes of plane fronted gravitational waves via proper conformal vector fields in f(R) gravity Int. J. Geom. Methods Mod. Phys. 16 1950151

DOI

75
Hussain F Shabbir G Ramzan M 2019 Classification of static cylindrically symmetric space-times in f(R) theory of gravity by conformal motions with perfect fluid matter Arab. J. Math. 8 115

DOI

76
Hussain F Shabbir G Jamal S Ramzan M 2019 A note on some Bianchi type II space-times and their conformal vector fields in f(R) theory of gravity Mod. Phys. Lett. A 34 1950320

DOI

77
Shabbir G Hussain F Mahomed F M Ramzan M 2018 Dust static plane symmetric solutions and their conformal vector fields in f(R) theory of gravity Mod. Phys. Lett. A 33 1850222

DOI

78
Shabbir G Ramzan M Hussain F Jamal S 2018 Classification of static symmetric space-times in f(R) theory of gravity according to their conformal vector fields Int. J. Geom. Methods Mod. Phys. 15 1850193

DOI

79
Shabbir G Hussain F Kara A H Ramzan M 2019 A note on some perfect fluid Kantowski–Sachs and Bianchi type III spacetimes and their conformal vector fields in f(R) theory of gravity Mod. Phys. Lett. A 34 1950079

DOI

80
Hussain F Shabbir G Mahomed F M Ramzan M 2020 A note on proper conformal vector fields of static spherically symmetric space-times in f(G) theory with perfect fluid source Rom. J. Phys. 65 116

81
Hussain F Shabbir G Ramzan M Hussain S F Qazi S 2020 Conformal vector fields of static spherically symmetric space-times in f(R,G) gravity Int. J. Geom. Methods Mod. Phys. 17 2050120

DOI

82
Hussain F Shabbir G Malik S Ramzan M Kara A H 2020 Classification of proper non-static cylindrically symmetric perfect fluid space-times via conformal vector fields in f(R) gravity Int. J. Geom. Methods Mod. Phys. 17 2050147

DOI

83
Shabbir G Hussain F Jamal S Ramzan M 2020 Existence of conformal vector fields of Bianchi type I space-times in f(R) gravity Int. J. Geom. Methods Mod. Phys. 17 1950113

DOI

84
Shabbir G Hussain F Malik S Ramzan M 2020 Conformal vector fields of some vacuum classes of static spherically symmetric space-times in f(T, B) gravity Int. J. Geom. Methods Mod. Phys. 17 2050149

DOI

85
Malik S Hussain F Shabbir G 2020 Conformal vector fields of static spherically symmetric perfect fluid space-times in modified teleparallel theory of gravity Int. J. Geom. Methods Mod. Phys. 17 2050202

DOI

86
Hussain F Shabbir G Ramzan M Malik S Mahomed F M 2020 A note on classification of static plane symmetric perfect fluid space-times via proper conformal vector fields in f(G) theory of gravity Int. J. Geom. Methods Mod. Phys. 17 2050086

DOI

87
Ali M Hussain F Shabbir G Hussain S F Ramzan M 2020 Classification of non-conformally flat static plane symmetric perfect fluid solutions via proper conformal vector fields in f(T) gravity Int. J. Geom. Methods Mod. Phys. 17 2050218

DOI

88
Hussain F Shabbir G Malik S Ramzan M 2021 Conformal vector fields for some vacuum classes of pp-waves space-times in ghost free infinite derivative gravity Int. J. Geom. Methods Mod. Phys. 18 2150109

DOI

89
Stephani H Kramer D Maccallum M A H Hoenselaers C Herlt E 2003 Exact Solutions of Einstein's Field Equations 2nd edn Cambridge Cambridge University Press

90
Bohmer C G Mussa A Tamanini N 2011 Existence of relativistic stars in f(T) gravity Class. Quantum Grav. 28 245020

DOI

91
Otalora G Reboucas M J 2017 Violation of causality in f(T) gravity Eur. Phys. J. C 77 799

DOI

92
Caruana M Farrugia G Said J L 2020 Cosmological bouncing solutions in f(T, B) gravity Eur. Phys. J. C 80 640

DOI

93
Bertotri B 1959 Uniform electromagnetic field in the theory of general relativity Phys. Rev. 116 1331

DOI

94
Robinson I 1959 A solution of the Maxwell–Einstein equations Bull. Acad. Pol. Sci., Ser. Sci. Math. Astron. Phys. 7 351

95
Zubair M Ditta A Gudekli E Bhar P Azmat H 2021 Anisotropic compact star models in f(T) gravity with Tolman–Kuchowicz spacetime Int. J. Geom. Methods Mod. Phys. 18 2150060

DOI

96
Nunes R C Pan S Saridakis N 2016 New observational constraints on f(T) gravity from cosmic chronometers J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 8 011

DOI

97
Iorio L Saridakis E N 2012 Solar System constraints on f(T) gravity Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 427 1555

DOI

98
Wu P Yu H 2010 Observational constraints on f(T) theory Phys. Lett. B 693 415

DOI

99
Nunes R C Pan S Saridakis E N 2010 New constraints on interacting dark energy from cosmic chronometers Phys. Rev. D 693 415

100
Khan S Hussain T Bokhari A H Khan G A 2015 Conformal Killing vectors of plane symmetric four-dimensional Lorentzian manifolds Eur. Phys. J. C 75 523

DOI

101
Chan M H 2015 f(R,T) gravity model behaving as a dark energy source J. Gravit. 2015 384673

102
Bohmer C G 2004 Eleven spherically symmetric constant density solutions with cosmological constant Gen. Relativ. Gravit. 36 1039

DOI

103
Hussain T Akhtar S S Bokhari A H 2020 A study of energy conditions in non-static spherically symmetric spacetimes via Noether symmetries J. Math. Anal. Appl. 483 123574

DOI

104
Camci U Saifullah K 2022 Conformal symmetries of the energy–momentum tensor of spherically symmetric static spacetimes Symmetry 14 647

DOI

Outlines

/